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Hinckley said growers can take several approaches to reducing their water loss
. Most vineyards have irrigation drip lines about a foot to 18 inches above the ground surface. Lowering those lines onto the ground -- or even burying them -- would reduce the speed and force with which irrigation water hits the ground, slowing its pace through the soil. But lowered or buried the lines are at risk of breakage during tilling operations and buried lines can get plugged.comfortable shoesAnother possibility is slowing the rate at which water is delivered from the drip emitter, Hinckley said. "They could irrigate earlier in the day when evaporation rates are lower, and could irrigate for a bit longer, but still deliver less water to the vine and there would be more time for the water to soak into the soil."shoes online
Hinckley said some growers have systems that send small pipes down into the root zone of each vine, putting water directly where it is needed. "That is very labor intensive," she said, which makes it expensive to install. "But we are living in a world where water is a precious resource, so many growers are taking those measures."Christian Louboutin patent leather shoes
Slower delivery could also help mitigate the problem of animal burrows, mainly ground squirrels, which are usually just below and parallel to the ground surface. Like the cracks, burrows offer water an easier path than slowly percolating through the soil and thus contribute to routing water away from the vines. Hinckley's lysimeters did not intercept water flowing through these burrows, which is one reason why she says the 10 percent estimate of water loss is a minimum. She said she's been out in the vineyards during big rainstorms and seen the burrow's effect.
"It basically looks like an artesian well," she said. "Water is flowing up, just spurting out from the subsurface."
The winter storms also revealed another cause for concern.
To determine the residency time of irrigation water in the soil, Hinckley analyzed the sulfur in the irrigation water she captured. Growers typically apply sulfur to their vines weekly throughout the growing season to combat mildew. The form of sulfur they use is chemically distinguishable from the sulfur found in the soil naturally, so by determining the quantity and type of sulfur in the water, she could tell whether the water had lingered in the soil long enough to react with it.
In addition to enabling her to calculate that at least 10 percent of the irrigation water was zipping past the root zone without reacting, she discovered that during the winter rainstorms, all the sulfur applied to the vines during the previous growing season was getting washed below the rooting zone of the vines, and potentially out of the vineyard. That could have significant consequences for areas downstream, she said.
"The growers absolutely bathe the landscape in sulfur," Hinckley said. "They are broadcast spraying it across the whole vineyard."
"The next stage of work is to look at what the implications of that sulfur input are for aquatic systems downgradient of the vineyards," she said. "There, sulfur may interact with other elements, such as heavy metals, which could have ecological consequences.
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